“There is no power on earth that can prevent the growing equality of conditions from bringing the human spirit toward searching for the useful and from disposing each citizen from shrinking within himself. One must therefore expect that individual interest will become more than ever the principal if not the unique motive of men’s actions…If in becoming equal, citizens remained ignorant and coarse, it is difficult to foresee what stupid excess their selfishness could be brought to…Enlighten them, therefore, at any price; for the century of blind devotions and instinctive virtues is already fleeing far from us, and I see the time approaching when freedom, public peace, and social order itself will not be able to do with out enlightenment.”
-Tocqueville: Democracy in America, vol. II, 1840
After the Enlightenment, Man had been stripped bare and all the loyalties that used to direct his interest had been rationalized and no longer simply compelled belief. Country, family, religion: everything had been robbed of its mystical force and all that was left was the naked Self. In the State of Nature, it was found that Man’s two most basic motivating instincts are Self-Preservation and Self-Interest and, despite all the exhortations of Moralists and Priests over the last two millennia against them, these two dirty little Passions in the end it seemed trumped all the others. An experiment was began that attempted to substitute for unrealistic Virtue a new doctrine known as Enlightened Self-Interest, or, as Tocqueville put it, Self-Interest Well Understood. The Enlighteners lowered the bar of expectations because it was thought that since it does not appear possible to make Man good, maybe we can at least make him less bad.
This idea is most simply summed up by Adam Smith’s (author of The Wealth of Nations, the Capitalistic handbook) famous dictum: "It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own self-interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages.” It was an attempt to build a Society on a more “natural” foundation-—based on how Men actually act, instead of how they ought to act. It was a simple appeal to Men’s Reason that stated: “I will respect your Right to do and think whatever you want, as long as you can do the same for me.”
Enlightened Self-Interest, as opposed to Self-Interest simply, is a nuanced distinction. It requires a new type of education—it is not necessarily something "natural"—and, if not properly cultivated, it will be consumed by greed and Self-indulgence. As Tocqueville points out in the passage quoted above, this new type of Society is built on the precipice of a very slippery slope, and if Enlightened Self-Interest ever degenerates into pure Self-Interest, the entire schema will fall apart. If everyone begins acting only according to their own myopic Self-Interest, then we are right back to the Hobbesian “War of All Against All”—the avoidance of which was supposedly the whole reason Man contracted into Societies in the first place.
Rousseau however, did not believe that Man could ever exercise such a thing as “Enlightened” Self-Interest, and that the Bourgeois—his name for the new type of Man created by these ideas—was a despicable being caught between two respectable extremes: Natural, Self-sufficient Man in the State of Nature; and the De-natured, Moral Citizen of the ancient republics of Greece and Rome. The Bourgeois simply fakes public benevolence in order to further his own selfish, private ends. Man’s passion for himself can never rationally be overcome.
According to Rousseau, Reason would always lead the Enlightened Man to the conclusion that, “it is useless for me to try to reconcile my interests with that of others; everything you tell me about the advantages of the social law would be excellent if, whilst I was scrupulously observing it toward others, I could ensure that they would all observe it towards me. But what assurance can you give me on this?…Either you must give me guarantees against any unjust undertaking, or you must not expect me to abstain from similar actions in my turn.” His proof of this claim is that this is “precisely how any sovereign society reasons when it is accountable for its conduct to no one but itself.”
But where does that leave us today, in this world that has now become radically rationalized and radically individualized? Rousseau asks, “where is the man who can separate himself from himself?” But we can never return to that fantastic (as in fantasy, as well as fabulous) golden age that immediately followed the State of Nature, where Man’s needs were few and his desires simple; nor to the peace of Amour de Soi and complete Self-sufficiency and independence. We are inescapably destined for the chains of “Civil” Society and the burdens of inter-dependence; for the daily interactions and the “Hell,” according to Sartre, “[that] is other people.”
Tocqueville was a big fan of Rousseau but knew that what he prescribed was limited and most likely unrealistic. Rousseau knew this as well—at least the limited part—and explained that what he was advocating could only work in very small, homogeneous communities, with strict moral codes and complete abandonment of the Individual Will to the General. In Democracy in America, Tocqueville tried to apply the insights of Rousseau to the exceptional situation (now known as American Exceptionalism) that had resulted in America and give us some advice as to how to combat the problems of Self-Interest and Radical Individualism that could be a resultant of our system.
What kind of education or ”enlightenment” can adequately combat these forces and attenuate the purely selfish potentialities inherent in Human Nature? Or conversely, if you don’t even believe there is such a thing as Human Nature (which would make education even more important), what needs to be taught in order to direct the Individual towards caring about the Common Good? In Rousseau’s book on education, the Emile, he very carefully goes through, step by step, how he would go about shaping the desires of an Individual from infancy through adulthood in order to reconcile him to Society and attenuate his purely selfish desires—which he saw as innate. He never does this, however, through appealing directly to the child’s Reason. Instead, he plays upon the desires of the child and very carefully, and unbeknownst to the child, leads him to the conclusions and the lessons that Rousseau wishes to instill in him.
Although the Emile is a work of fiction, Rousseau very convincingly shows how it would be possible to achieve this necessary goal, but, in the real world, we could never have an educational system as thorough as the one proposed by Rousseau, nor enough educators as patient and clever as the one portrayed in this novel. I believe however that it is possible to do a better job than we are now and that what we are currently teaching to children exacerbates the problem as opposed to alleviating it. Yes of course creativity and self-esteem should be encouraged in kids, but above all what needs to be instilled in them is a sense of their responsibilities and duties to others. As I have stated previously, kids don’t need to be taught to be more concerned with themselves; they naturally will be so either by Nature—Self-preservation/Self-interest—or by Nurture—they are already the center of the world that everything in their life revolves around.
What we need is a new attempt at cultivating an Enlightened Self-Interest that can make Man realize his responsibilities and duties, while appealing to his love of Self to achieve it. History has so far revealed Liberal Democracy to be the best and most stable of the alternatives that Modern Political Philosophy has come up with, but, as stated earlier, this schema is always poised at the precipice of a slippery slope. Today it is in our own Self-Interest to stand up for our-Selves and make a lot of changes to our System, but I don’t see how we can do that if we no longer even believe in the goodness of having a "System." The world currently contains 6.6 billion people and is growing daily. We are therefore inextricably bound to live within the confines of Society, so how should we go about ordering it? Is a Rousseauean complete Self-abnegation necessary, or can Man be taught to be reasonable enough to rationally realize the extent of his own Self-Interest and be capable of putting Self-imposed chains upon his desires?
“Men are qualified for civil liberty in exact proportion to their disposition to put moral chains on their own appetites…Society cannot exist unless a controlling power upon will and appetite be placed somewhere, and the less of it there is within, the more there is without. It is ordained in the eternal constitution of things that men of intemperate minds cannot be free. Their passions forge their own fetters.”—Edmund Burke
